Landscape Pattern Analysis

Landascape Ecology as a New Paradigm for Conservation and Ecological Restoration

"Biodiversity is the basis for ecosystem goods and services that provide for human survival and prosperity. With a rapidly increasing human population and its demands for natural resources, landscapes are being fragmented, habitats are being destroyed, and biodiversity is declining. How can biodiversity be effectively conserved in the face of increasing human pressures? In this paper, I review changing perspectives on biodiversity conservation, and discuss their relevance to the practice of biodiversity conservation. The major points include: The notion of balance of nature is a myth rather than a scientific concept; the theory of island biogeography is useful heuristically but flawed practically; the SLOSS debate is intriguing in theory but irrelevant in reality; the concept of minimum viable population and population viability analysis are useful, but technically inefficient and conceptually inadequate; metapopulation theory is mathematically elegant but ecologically oversimplistic; and integrative perspectives and approaches for biodiversity conservation are needed that incorporate insights from landscape ecology and sustainability science. I further discuss some key principles for regional conservation planning, and argue that the long-term success of biodiversity conservation in any region will ultimately depend on the economic and social sustainability of that region. Both research and practice in biodiversity conservation, therefore, need to adopt a broader perspective of sustainability." - Jianguo Wu (2008)

Wiens (2009): Landscape ecology as a foundation for sustainable conservation

"Landscape ecology and conservation share a common focus on places, but they differ in their perspectives about what is important about those places, and the integration of landscape ecology into conservation is far from complete. I consider four ways in which landscape ecology can contribute to conservation. First, protected areas that are established for conservation are not stand-alone isolates. They exist in the context of broader landscape mosaics, which may encourage or discourage movements of individuals into and out of an area. Second, the landscape surroundings of a preserve may contain threats to the biodiversity within the preserve, many of them consequences of human activities. In combination, these relationships with the surroundings may make the “effective area” of a preserve different from that shown on a map. Third, the scale of an administrative area or of management action may not coincide with the scales of populations, disturbances, or ecological processes, creating challenges to both landscape ecology and conservation. Finally, landscapes encompass people and their activities; sustainability of conservation requires consideration of the tradeoffs between human uses and the biodiversity values of a landscape. I illustrate these four themes with a case study of the management of prairie dogs (Cynomys ludovicianus) in the Great Plains of North America, where the tensions between conservation and human land uses are particularly high. Ecologists and conservationists consider prairie dogs as keystone species in these grassland ecosystems and primary targets for conservation, but many private landowners regard them as varmints that consume valuable livestock forage and degrade rangeland condition. Effective conservation of functioning grasslands must include prairie dogs, and this in turn requires that the issues be addressed in terms of the biological, social, and cultural features of entire landscapes. Important as they are, areas protected for conservation cannot by themselves stem the tide of global biodiversity loss. The perspective must be broadened to include the landscapes where people live and work, recognizing the dynamic nature of landscapes and the factors driving land-use change. Landscape ecologists must work together to overcome the cultural differences between their disciplines, and between academic science and conservation practice and management. It can, and must, be done." - John Wiens (2009)

Restoration ecology

Restoration ecology is the study of restoring, through active human intervention, a degraded, damaged, or destroyed ecosystem. Although the practice of ecological restoration has been carried out for several decades, the scientific field of "restoration ecology" became established only in the late 1980s. The Society for Ecological Restoration defines ecological restoration as an “intentional activity that initiates or accelerates the recovery of an ecosystem with respect to its health, integrity and sustainability” (SER 2004).

"Restoration ecology is still an emerging science, with its roots in practical restoration projects around the world. Research generally focuses on improving the conceptual, technical, and socioeconomic bases for conducting effective ecological restoration. In recent years, there has been a move away from site- and situation-specific studies of particular restoration projects to a broader consideration of the conceptual basis for restoration ecology and the publication of synthetic treatments of the subject ...... (Hobbs 2004).

Ecological restoration is now more urgent and more crucial than ever before because of the myriad human influences on the environment, pervasively from city centers to rural regions, remote hinterlands, and protected areas. To achieve the goals of biodiversity conservation, environmental protection, and sustainable development in the Anthropocene, ecological restoration is indispensable for reconstructing destroyed ecosystems, repairing damaged ecosystems, and rehabilitating degraded ecosystems. All ecological restoration practices take place in landscapes that are spatially heterogeneous, often with multiple natural and human ecosystems interacting with each other. No restoration site is an island; nothing restored by humans is “natural”; and no restored ecosystems are actually “restored” if not sustainable. For any ecological restoration to be sustainable, a landscape perspective is needed – from restoring a local population to restoring a regional landscape. Calls for a landscape approach to restoration were made in the 1990s, but there is still a scarcity of landscape-based principles to guide restoration practices. Ecological restoration must have landscape sustainability as an ultimate goal if it is to be successful longterm, while few landscapes can be sustainable without successful ecological restoration.

Gann GD et al. (2019) International principles and standards for the practice of ecological restoration. Second edition. Restor. Ecol. 27(S1):S1–S46